The Untouchables
Addressing Racist Classics in Children's Public Library Collections
INFO 266 Collection Development
San Jose State University Professor Wayne Disher
Fall 2017
This site is designed to argue that racially biased, outdated children’s classics warrant consideration within modern children’s collections in public libraries devoted to equitable service to diverse populations.
Ninety four percent of parents polled for a recent PEW Research study felt that libraries were very important for their children, mainly because they help foster a love of reading and books (Miller et al, 2013). Based on program attendance and circulation records, most public libraries consider children to be one their largest user groups and direct suitable attention to programming and development of the children's collection. Many libraries also recognize that the population they serve, not to mention the world as a whole, is increasingly diverse. Accordingly, much effort is made to diversify collections in order to better reflect the users and offer more insight into an increasingly pluralistic society. However, there is a part of many children’s collections that seems exempt to modernization. Children’s classics, particularly those written during the first part of the 20th century, often contain biased perspectives toward non-white cultures. They are racist and no longer reflect the ethics of modern library policies, yet seem permanently embedded in otherwise diverse collections. The messages in these books vex children's librarians who strive to serve their young community with equitable and accurate materials.
The Library Bill of Rights (ALA, 2004) states that minors have the same rights and access to information as adults. Children’s collection development policies generally follow the principles of intellectual freedom and mirror those of the adult collections. Librarians are wary of addressing racist children’s classics for fear of showing bias or seeming to censor the collection in any way. This is the main argument against addressing biased children’s classics. But children’s librarians also understand, based on studies and experience, that children have different information behavior than adults and that stories make a profound impact on their self-image and the way they perceive the world around them. "Recognized as trusted spaces that welcome children to explore, discover, and connect to the larger world, libraries can play an integral role in helping them develop understanding and respect for other people from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds" (Naidoo, 2014). Collections in which biased classics are integrated in a thoughtful, provocative way can serve an increasingly diverse population and celebrate intellectual freedom simultaneously.
Ninety four percent of parents polled for a recent PEW Research study felt that libraries were very important for their children, mainly because they help foster a love of reading and books (Miller et al, 2013). Based on program attendance and circulation records, most public libraries consider children to be one their largest user groups and direct suitable attention to programming and development of the children's collection. Many libraries also recognize that the population they serve, not to mention the world as a whole, is increasingly diverse. Accordingly, much effort is made to diversify collections in order to better reflect the users and offer more insight into an increasingly pluralistic society. However, there is a part of many children’s collections that seems exempt to modernization. Children’s classics, particularly those written during the first part of the 20th century, often contain biased perspectives toward non-white cultures. They are racist and no longer reflect the ethics of modern library policies, yet seem permanently embedded in otherwise diverse collections. The messages in these books vex children's librarians who strive to serve their young community with equitable and accurate materials.
The Library Bill of Rights (ALA, 2004) states that minors have the same rights and access to information as adults. Children’s collection development policies generally follow the principles of intellectual freedom and mirror those of the adult collections. Librarians are wary of addressing racist children’s classics for fear of showing bias or seeming to censor the collection in any way. This is the main argument against addressing biased children’s classics. But children’s librarians also understand, based on studies and experience, that children have different information behavior than adults and that stories make a profound impact on their self-image and the way they perceive the world around them. "Recognized as trusted spaces that welcome children to explore, discover, and connect to the larger world, libraries can play an integral role in helping them develop understanding and respect for other people from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds" (Naidoo, 2014). Collections in which biased classics are integrated in a thoughtful, provocative way can serve an increasingly diverse population and celebrate intellectual freedom simultaneously.
The essence of children’s librarianship lies in a fundamental commitment to serve the needs of young patrons. Such dedication is reflected in library mission statements and collection policies, which outline general goals for diverse and balanced collections that reflect the community accurately and equitably. Mission statements from libraries known for their service to the community share common language:
Multnomah County Library provides a variety of physical and digital material to support the informational, educational, and recreational needs of our community. The collection reflects the diverse population of our county. Evanston Public Library aims to be the heart of our diverse community by promoting the development of independent, self-confident and literate citizens, and providing equitable access to cultural, intellectual, technological, and information resources. The San Francisco Public Library system is dedicated to free and equal access to information, knowledge, independent learning, and the joys of reading for our diverse community. |
Beloved Belindy, a feature character in the Raggedy Ann & Andy stories.
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Diverse collections operate on the philosophy of windows and doors. Stories hold the power to influence a child’s perspective on the world. They can serve as a mirror that reflects a child’s own experience and culture, or as a window in through which a child can glimpse the experience of someone unlike them (Naidoo, 2014). Stories that accurately portray diversity and cultures can have a positive impact on a child’s self-image. Furthermore, “through engaging with cultural literature, youth can learn different perspectives that may help them prepare for competent global citizenship. High-quality cultural literature can invite readers to educate their hearts and minds” (Moreillon, 2013, p. 37). Children’s literature that provides inaccurate, stereotyped depictions of cultures equally influence children. “If children are consistently exposed to books and other media that negatively represent their culture, then it is likely they will internalize these social messages and develop a poor sense of self. Similarly, negative images or misinformation about a particular cultural group reinforces stereotypes in children outside the culture (Myers, 2014). Unfortunately, "diversity as represented in the United States’ children’s literature has not kept pace with the diversity of the United States’ children and, in particular, the award-winning literature that is destined to stay in the hands of future generations of children" (Moffett, 2016, p. 18).
The harm inflicted on children who find themselves stereotyped in stories and the misconceptions that are propagated about minority populations through biased perspectives drives many children’s librarians to become critical reviewers when it comes to selecting new materials for collections. Today, children’s librarians select diverse books not only to grow a diverse collection, but also, perhaps subconsciously, to balance the racist classics that seem permanently embedded in the shelves.
Fortunately, librarians today have access to an abundance of resources and professional development opportunities designed to guide them in selecting diverse and equitable materials. The Association of Library Service to Children (ALSC), a branch of the American Library Association (ALA), provides tools and initiatives to support diverse collection development. Book lists, awards, and organizations dedicated to advocating books representing minority perspectives provide librarians with information and a selection of materials that was minimal at best just a few years ago. Articles in major library journals like Horn Book Magazine, School Library Journal, and Booklist discuss the need and value of diverse collections. Although selection requires skill and thoughtful consideration, the task is prominently discussed among the professional community and clearly outlined in most library policies.
Less clear is the handling of books that adamantly defy modern collection policies but which have attained a sort of tenure within the children’s collection. These are the beloved children’s classics of yore (beloved, at least, to white children throughout the 20th century). Such titles often stereotype non-white characters or distort history in favor of a white perspective.
Fortunately, librarians today have access to an abundance of resources and professional development opportunities designed to guide them in selecting diverse and equitable materials. The Association of Library Service to Children (ALSC), a branch of the American Library Association (ALA), provides tools and initiatives to support diverse collection development. Book lists, awards, and organizations dedicated to advocating books representing minority perspectives provide librarians with information and a selection of materials that was minimal at best just a few years ago. Articles in major library journals like Horn Book Magazine, School Library Journal, and Booklist discuss the need and value of diverse collections. Although selection requires skill and thoughtful consideration, the task is prominently discussed among the professional community and clearly outlined in most library policies.
Less clear is the handling of books that adamantly defy modern collection policies but which have attained a sort of tenure within the children’s collection. These are the beloved children’s classics of yore (beloved, at least, to white children throughout the 20th century). Such titles often stereotype non-white characters or distort history in favor of a white perspective.
"Beneath the palm trees sat a man and a woman, both quite black all over and with very few clothes on . . .On the knee of the negro lady sat a tiny black piccaninny with nothing on at a ll. It smiled at the children as its Mother spoke' ... You bring dem chillun dere into ma li'l house for a slice of water-melon right now. My, but dem's very white babies, You an' use a li'l bit black boot polish on dem ...': (Mary Poppins by P.L. Travers, 1934).
These classics, which are so deeply embedded in modern collections, come from a time when most literature for children was written by and for a white audience. Perspectives in books upheld the myth of white superiority on which American society was built. Brad Chambers, co-director of The Council on Interracial Books for children, states, “the texts I read for school suggested that I, being white, was superior to people of color” (socialjusticebooks.org, 1983). Details that we now recognize as biased, inaccurate, or stereotypical were accepted in books during the first half of the 20th century and the books themselves were often recognized for innovative themes and were awarded by librarian associations.
Compared to the wealth of resources available to educate and aid librarians in the selection of diverse materials, there is almost no published material addressing the management of existing racist titles. Librarians often discuss the handling of racist materials among staff and within professional organizations but often to no productive end other than heightened awareness of the potential harm such titles can inflict on young readers. Library collection policies are even less help as they rarely discuss racist children’s classics as a category to be managed. Some interpretation of collection maintenance policies may inform the handling of existing materials. San Francisco Public Library, for example, describes collection maintenance as helping to keep the collection "current, attractive, responsive, diverse, and useful to the needs of the community" (SFPL, n.d., p. 51). Oakland Public Library policies state as one criteria, "Relevance to the experience and contributions of diverse populations" (n.d.). Most policies also state that patron demand is a top priority, so there is little guidance when it comes to items that contradict library collection criteria. Despite modern collection development policies that call for equitable collections, most of these historical books, considered classics, are shelved in alphabetical order in the children's room between more equitable, modern titles. However, ignoring the content of a story simply because it is a children's classic will keep collections stubbornly rooted in a white-dominated past. As Rajput states, "The objection can be raised that even though books ethnically stereotype characters, they are a reflection of the thinking at the time they were written. Isn't a charming story reason enough to share a book with children? Or do we want to avoid adding to the distorted perceptions of other cultures still rife in our society?" (2009, p. 63). |
Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder, 1935
Where's Waldo: The Fantastic Journey by Martin Handford, 2007
The Five Chinese Brothers by Claire Huchet Bishop, 1938
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Many of these classics are elevated to an even more untouchable pedestal because they once earned awards, many given by the very associations that now advocate for diversity and equity in children’s literature. Once a title has been elevated to the status of classic by awards, nostalgic value, or popularity, it becomes virtually untouchable. Despite modern views of what is accurate and equitable and despite modern selection criteria, such titles are rarely given special consideration in children's libraries. By avoiding discussion of racist classics, libraries miss an opportunity to serve the community. As Nancy Larrick boldly declared in her 1965 article, "There seems little chance of developing the humility so urgently needed for world cooperation instead of world conflict, as long as our children are brought up on gentle doses of racism through their books" (p. 63).
While the issue plagues many a conscientious children’s librarian, most feel unable to make changes in their collection due to the fundamentals of American librarianship: Intellectual Freedom and the Library Bills of Rights.
ALA’s publication Free Access to Libraries for Minors: An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights (2004) states, “libraries should not limit the selection and development of library resources simply because minors will have access to them. Institutional self-censorship diminishes the credibility of the library in the community”. Most public libraries adhere to Intellectual Freedom by publishing policies similar to those of Multnomah County Library, which states, “ Library users of all ages can access the entire collection. We encourage parents and guardians to help their children choose resources that keep with their values” (n.d.). ALSC states, “Access to library materials should not be restricted for any reason. Unfortunately, children and teens suffer when policies are put in place that hinder their access to all types of information” (n.d.).
Library fundamentals can be paralyzing for librarians who are committed to upholding them. The fear of inadvertently censoring a title in an attempt to create equity in a collection leaves many librarians hesitant to address biased books at all. However, as Evans and Saponara point out, the plethora of ethical documents issued by the ALA should be a starting point, not an ending point when it comes to collection management. "'Position papers' issued by the ALA must be broad brushstrokes in order to include the variations in libraries and their environments. They must be general in content and are rarely, if ever, prescriptive in nature. Thus, they are the starting point for thinking about the issues in terms of your library's environment. Real-world situations rarely lend themselves to general principle or position statements" (2012, p. 307).
Evans and Saponara explain that the best option for addressing ethics in collection management is to think deeply about the issue and your beliefs, prior to encountering situations that will require ethical choices (2012). This means having candid and open discussions with staff and pursuing dialogue with colleagues via professional associations. Managers should support professional development in this area in order to build an informed team. Amy Martin, children's collection development manager for Oakland Public Library, explains,
It's easy enough not to buy a book that no one's asked for. Where this gets complicated is if a book becomes popular and we start getting multiple patron requests. If we started to get those, we'd have to weigh the book's insensitivity to diverse populations with our first criteria for selection, "Demonstrated or perceived community interest, need or demand by Library users or potential users." And that is a really hard question, and I don't think there is one single answer. We still might not buy the book, and let interested patrons know they can get it through Link+ or ILL... but there's a way in which that's just us ducking the responsibility of owning the item ourselves. What I have come to think is most helpful is encouraging conversation among librarians about these titles, sharing blog posts and reviews so that all are well informed about their problems. Selectors can then make informed professional choices. -(Amy Martin, personal correspondence, 2017)
First of all, addressing biased titles does not mean removing the books from the collection. To remove biased titles altogether would be to erase the blunders of history and would rob children of the opportunity to learn from the past. In a 1982 interview, Brad Chambers – co-director of the Council for Interracial Books for Children- explained “We have found that biased books make marvelous tools to teach children about bias, and rather than advocating the removal of such books, we urge that they be used in that manner. Once children gain insights into the nature and function of stereotypes, they are quite able on their own to spot stereotypes in books, on TV and wherever bias occurs. Providing children with the skills to identify bias gives them a sort of defense, and antidote against the worst effects of bias. After all, we are not asking that children’s books remove women from the kitchen, but that they not limit women to that role. We are not asking that people of color be shown as saints, but rather that they not be restricted to subservient and stereotyped roles” (Chambers as quoted by Social Justice Books). Rajput suggests that the best use of biased classics is as a vehicle for teaching critical thinking. “If all children learn to critically evaluate the books they read, we need never fear any book on our library shelves” (Raiput, 2009, p. 68).
Addressing biased titles also does not mean we label books. This may work in a school library in which there exists a curriculum of information literacy and guided critical reading. In a public library, spine labeling would be considered censorship. Equity, Diversity, Inclusion: An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights (2017), states that “libraries should counter censorship by practicing inclusion”.
How then can public libraries include biased classics while promoting intellectual freedom and critical thinking? How can we convey to minority patrons that we value them through an equitable collection without condoning or condemning racist perspectives? This discussion may lead to rethinking how we present our entire collection.
ALA’s publication Free Access to Libraries for Minors: An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights (2004) states, “libraries should not limit the selection and development of library resources simply because minors will have access to them. Institutional self-censorship diminishes the credibility of the library in the community”. Most public libraries adhere to Intellectual Freedom by publishing policies similar to those of Multnomah County Library, which states, “ Library users of all ages can access the entire collection. We encourage parents and guardians to help their children choose resources that keep with their values” (n.d.). ALSC states, “Access to library materials should not be restricted for any reason. Unfortunately, children and teens suffer when policies are put in place that hinder their access to all types of information” (n.d.).
Library fundamentals can be paralyzing for librarians who are committed to upholding them. The fear of inadvertently censoring a title in an attempt to create equity in a collection leaves many librarians hesitant to address biased books at all. However, as Evans and Saponara point out, the plethora of ethical documents issued by the ALA should be a starting point, not an ending point when it comes to collection management. "'Position papers' issued by the ALA must be broad brushstrokes in order to include the variations in libraries and their environments. They must be general in content and are rarely, if ever, prescriptive in nature. Thus, they are the starting point for thinking about the issues in terms of your library's environment. Real-world situations rarely lend themselves to general principle or position statements" (2012, p. 307).
Evans and Saponara explain that the best option for addressing ethics in collection management is to think deeply about the issue and your beliefs, prior to encountering situations that will require ethical choices (2012). This means having candid and open discussions with staff and pursuing dialogue with colleagues via professional associations. Managers should support professional development in this area in order to build an informed team. Amy Martin, children's collection development manager for Oakland Public Library, explains,
It's easy enough not to buy a book that no one's asked for. Where this gets complicated is if a book becomes popular and we start getting multiple patron requests. If we started to get those, we'd have to weigh the book's insensitivity to diverse populations with our first criteria for selection, "Demonstrated or perceived community interest, need or demand by Library users or potential users." And that is a really hard question, and I don't think there is one single answer. We still might not buy the book, and let interested patrons know they can get it through Link+ or ILL... but there's a way in which that's just us ducking the responsibility of owning the item ourselves. What I have come to think is most helpful is encouraging conversation among librarians about these titles, sharing blog posts and reviews so that all are well informed about their problems. Selectors can then make informed professional choices. -(Amy Martin, personal correspondence, 2017)
First of all, addressing biased titles does not mean removing the books from the collection. To remove biased titles altogether would be to erase the blunders of history and would rob children of the opportunity to learn from the past. In a 1982 interview, Brad Chambers – co-director of the Council for Interracial Books for Children- explained “We have found that biased books make marvelous tools to teach children about bias, and rather than advocating the removal of such books, we urge that they be used in that manner. Once children gain insights into the nature and function of stereotypes, they are quite able on their own to spot stereotypes in books, on TV and wherever bias occurs. Providing children with the skills to identify bias gives them a sort of defense, and antidote against the worst effects of bias. After all, we are not asking that children’s books remove women from the kitchen, but that they not limit women to that role. We are not asking that people of color be shown as saints, but rather that they not be restricted to subservient and stereotyped roles” (Chambers as quoted by Social Justice Books). Rajput suggests that the best use of biased classics is as a vehicle for teaching critical thinking. “If all children learn to critically evaluate the books they read, we need never fear any book on our library shelves” (Raiput, 2009, p. 68).
Addressing biased titles also does not mean we label books. This may work in a school library in which there exists a curriculum of information literacy and guided critical reading. In a public library, spine labeling would be considered censorship. Equity, Diversity, Inclusion: An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights (2017), states that “libraries should counter censorship by practicing inclusion”.
How then can public libraries include biased classics while promoting intellectual freedom and critical thinking? How can we convey to minority patrons that we value them through an equitable collection without condoning or condemning racist perspectives? This discussion may lead to rethinking how we present our entire collection.
San Francisco Public Library describes the Fisher Children's Center, the children's room in the main library, as a resource collection to be used by children, parents, teachers, children's authors and illustrators, teachers, adults learning a new language, literature researchers, and library school graduate students (SFPL, n.d.). In order to meet the needs of this broad user group, the library explains its collection as containing "a deep juvenile fiction section which retains classic authors and titles from previous centuries as well as current popular titles". With an educational mission, it makes perfect sense that the collection contain titles representing the history of children's literature. The way the collection is organized, however, is a working example of modernization. Classics featuring culturally insensitive details are presented in the Changing Portrayals of Ethnic and Minority Groups Collection. It is intended for the purpose of research and not all items circulate. Items in the collection include The Story of Little Black Sambo, The Pigtail of Ah Lee Ben Loo, and The Five Chinese Brothers.
San Jose Public Library also houses racist children’s books in a special collection. The San Jose State University’s Historical Juvenile Collection contains historic fiction, non-fiction, and state textbooks, all of which may be checked out. |
Children's Creative Center at the San Francisco Public Library
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library. San Jose, California
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According to Disher, special collections are designed to house materials “considered somehow to be outside the realm of normal collection development activities” (2014, p.37). This definition describes racist classics within many children’s collection because such materials contradict collection policies that call for accurate and equitable portrayals of diverse populations. Permanent special collections may still be highly contested, however, due to the implication of censorship or bias on the part of the collection developer.
Librarians may be able to highlight bias within a collection by addressing it from the perspective of findability. Instead of interspersing racist classics alphabetically on the shelves, perhaps outdated titles could be prominently displayed as a genre. Circulation will undoubtedly increase, but quite possibly so will dialogue about content and perspective. Grouping certain books together invites talking points and gives librarians an opportunity to provide additional support and information in the form of displays and programming.
Merchandising memorable classics will also appeal to parents of children. According to a PEW study, "Once at the library or on the library website, parents are more likely than other adults to do a notable number of activities, including browse shelves, borrow printed books, attend classes and events for children, borrow DVDs and CDs, use computers and the internet, and borrow e-books" (Miller et al., 2013). When it comes to deciding how to address biased classics, librarians will gain a lot of insight by engaging parents from the community in the discussion. Neutral, insightful groupings or displays of titles may lead to feedback, which can inform more structured policies in the future. If the library serves a community in which diversity and equity are valued, chances are merchandising historical classics as opportunities for dialogue will appeal to users.
Librarians may be able to highlight bias within a collection by addressing it from the perspective of findability. Instead of interspersing racist classics alphabetically on the shelves, perhaps outdated titles could be prominently displayed as a genre. Circulation will undoubtedly increase, but quite possibly so will dialogue about content and perspective. Grouping certain books together invites talking points and gives librarians an opportunity to provide additional support and information in the form of displays and programming.
Merchandising memorable classics will also appeal to parents of children. According to a PEW study, "Once at the library or on the library website, parents are more likely than other adults to do a notable number of activities, including browse shelves, borrow printed books, attend classes and events for children, borrow DVDs and CDs, use computers and the internet, and borrow e-books" (Miller et al., 2013). When it comes to deciding how to address biased classics, librarians will gain a lot of insight by engaging parents from the community in the discussion. Neutral, insightful groupings or displays of titles may lead to feedback, which can inform more structured policies in the future. If the library serves a community in which diversity and equity are valued, chances are merchandising historical classics as opportunities for dialogue will appeal to users.
"A tiny black paw, like a nigger's baby's hand, reached out" (The Yearling by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, 1938)
Deciding which historical titles to include in a genre or special section can be daunting. One possibility might be to feature a revolving selection of books in a display. Librarians often create temporary collections to celebrate monthly themes or topics. Just as displays feature holidays, cultures, events, or concepts, so could they highlight books with historical perspectives. However librarians choose to address titles with biased content, it must be done in a thoughtful manner that does not imply virtue on the part of the library and does not shame patrons who have or will form their own opinions of the story. Rather than work against intellectual freedom, embrace its principals and present the biased classics as vehicles of information, which can provide opportunities to better understand our past and read with a critical eye.
As an example, the recently released book Was the Cat in the Hat Black?: The Hidden Racism in Children's Books and the Need for Diverse Books by Philip Nel would make an excellent focal point for a display about racism in classic children's literature. “No one wants to admit to enjoying something or liking something that perpetuates racial stereotypes. But we do, because a book can be beautiful and racist, a book can be a classic and racist, a book can be really pleasurable and also really racist” (Nel as quoted by Begley, 2017).
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Creative shelving allows librarians to highlight historical titles within the collection in a thoughtful, integrated manner. Displays provide additional information and invite patrons to be curious, critical readers.
Of the many librarians I interviewed on the subject, all lamented that addressing racist classics is one of the most difficult topics they grapple with on a daily basis. As several pointed out, there is no right answer. However, they each agreed on the importance of supplementing the collection with cultural programming, informative displays, and candid discussion with patrons about the content of titles. By creating a space for dialogue about the messages in children's literature, librarians embrace the values of American librarianship in a way that serves a diverse population. As the Library Code of Ethics states, "In a political system grounded in an informed citizenry, we are members of a profession explicitly committed to intellectual freedom and the freedom of access to information. We have a special obligation to ensure the free flow of information and ideas to present and future generations" (ALA, 2008).
In conclusion, libraries that serve diverse communities or communities that value a pluralistic society have an obligation to provide patrons with equitable collections that reflect modern values. Librarians must balance intellectual freedom with their knowledge of the collection and decide how best to present biased classics in a way that values readers and encourages critical thinking. Attention to biased classics achieves two important goals. First, it lets young patrons know that librarians see them and support them. Second, addressing bias, instead of ignoring it, may alter a national narrative that still favors the white race above all others. Regardless of the method used to address insensitive and outdated titles, development of policies for such materials will provoke invaluable discussions and will ultimately foster awareness and thoughtfulness in the selection of new materials. Libraries will never fully achieve equity and balance in a collection until untouchable titles are acknowledged, considered, and handled in a manner that is relevant to modern times and diverse communities.
In conclusion, libraries that serve diverse communities or communities that value a pluralistic society have an obligation to provide patrons with equitable collections that reflect modern values. Librarians must balance intellectual freedom with their knowledge of the collection and decide how best to present biased classics in a way that values readers and encourages critical thinking. Attention to biased classics achieves two important goals. First, it lets young patrons know that librarians see them and support them. Second, addressing bias, instead of ignoring it, may alter a national narrative that still favors the white race above all others. Regardless of the method used to address insensitive and outdated titles, development of policies for such materials will provoke invaluable discussions and will ultimately foster awareness and thoughtfulness in the selection of new materials. Libraries will never fully achieve equity and balance in a collection until untouchable titles are acknowledged, considered, and handled in a manner that is relevant to modern times and diverse communities.